1. http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/nov/28/step-away-from-your-phone-the-new-rules-of-conversation


The young people of today are engaging in a new phenomenon which is known as 'phubbing' this involves maintaining eye contact they continue to use their phones. But do adults not part take in this multitasking as they are unable to maintain both conversation and staying on their phone, so has technology shaped the way the younger generation communicate; yet is it beginning to affect the older generation.




When a conversation begins to become either too intense or becomes awkward we now have technology to use as a 'go to' when feelings of anxiousness arise. Through technology we are able to communicate with a lot more clarity as we are able to edit out what we don't want to express and can hide the emotions due to being behind a screen. Technology promotes being social and being a 'community' but isn't it ironic how we use our mobile phones while being alone sat in our rooms? A problem with communicating through technology is that it brings a high level of uncertainty as how can we tell who we are communicating with, as the only proof we have is a name which can be edited with a click of a button.




Do these new forms of commination lead to a decline in the authenticity of language, as research has shown that within young people despite being more connected on cyberspace they still are associated with loneliness.








2.http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/nov/28/how-to-talk-to-anyone-the-experts-guide


Both children and teenagers are known to be difficult to hold a conversation with due to a lack of response from their behalf. This may be down to them not knowing what your looking to get in return from asking them a certain question, they often respond with a grunt or shrug their shoulders; try to meet their emotions instead of telling them how to feel. Teens often prefer to hold a conversation while being preoccupied in another task, allows them to feel less tense and not maintain so much information. When communicating with children its beneficial to use games and visual cues as they are able to piece these bits of information together.
- An important aspect of communicating with both children and teenagers is to respect the importance of what they're saying even if it might seem something small it might have had a bigger impact on them.






3.http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/ng-interactive/2015/nov/28/the-conversation-that-changed-my-life


A 27 year old who had a mental illness of what is described to be split personality, as she wanted to have one half of her who remained a 'good' or in other words sane individual; she described it was an easier way to cope. She had been admitted to a treatment centre in which she had come off  the cocaine, she felt a lot of hatred towards herself as she felt like she would rather be in a ditch then being safe. She had been told that if she wanted to leave she would have to discuss it with a duty counsellor in which she described she liked his 'fury', After telling her that she should stay she came to the realisation that infact wanting to locate to a ditch was wrong, as no matter where you are when you're mad, madness travels with you.


Both the counsellor and the women resulted to sitting in the hallway while grasping on another's hand   and the duty counsellor continued to compliment the young women by calling her 'lovely' in which she describes as 'being lit in my mind a tiny, indelible wisp of sanity'. The mental illness which had haunted her for many years had began to seize as she felt as though she wanted to kill the other bad version of her before it killed her.

http://filestore.aqa.org.uk/subjects/AQA-ENGA3-WRE-JUN14.PDF

Are gender theories the problem towards inequality?

http://ncronline.org/blogs/francis-chronicles/pope-francis-gender-theory-problem-not-solution

1. Males and female were made to help, listen and face issues together, not for them to conflict with one another.
2. Sexual differentiation, therefore, exists not for creating conflict or a situation of subordination, but for reciprocity and fruitfulness.
3. Modern culture has done much to open up a new and deeper understanding of men and women, but it also has introduced many doubts and much scepticism.
4. Gender theories argue that male and female characteristics are malleable social constructs, does this just backtrack all the of the moving forward we have achieved?
5. Men and women "must treat each other with respect and friendly cooperation," and once this proper basis is created with God's grace, solid marriages and families can be built

3 D's + theorists

Gender theories and Theorists

Deficit Model:

The idea that women language is deficient to the male 'norm'.

Robin Lakoff (1975): Robin is representative of the 'deficit approach' to language and gender. She admits that "It is my impression though I do not have precise statistical evidence"- she uses generalisations but no statistical evidence to support her claims.

Features of female speech:

1. Hedges: phrases like 'sort of', 'kind of'
2. Empty adjectives: 'Divine' and 'nice'
3. Super-polite form: 'would you mind'
4. More apologetic: 'I'm sorry but I think that'
5. Speak less frequently
6. Avoid coarse language or expletives
7. Prestige grammar and clear articulation- Women perceive language as inspirational

Indirect requests: 'I'm so thirsty' - implied meanings - pragmatics

But since 1975 views on gender have drastically changed.


Janet Holmes (1992): She suggested that women use tag question to maintain discussion or to be polite. Therefore rather than showing uncertainty, it shows cooperation. Janet also stated that the use of hedges and fillers were not simply markers of indecision  but were used of a variety of reasons. She also believed that these features are boosting devices used to intensify the force of an expression for added emphasis or powers.
 

Difference Model:

This approach seeks to explain the ways in which men and women talk in relation to their sub-cultures and ways in which their talk is shaped by attitudes, or preference for a type of talk.

Deborah Tannen (1990):She believes the difference starts in childhood, where parents use more words about feelings to girls and use more verbs to boys. Males and females belong to difference sub-cultures and therefore speak differently.

There are gender differences in ways of speaking and we need to identify and understand them:

1. Status v Support - men see language as a means of asserting dominance; women see it as a way of confirming/supporting ideas.
2. Independence v Intimacy- men "go it alone"; women seek support.
3. Advice v Understanding - men see language as problem solving; women see it as a means of empathy.
4. Information v Feelings - males are concerned with the facts; women with emotions.
5. Orders v Proposals - men use imperatives; females use hidden directives.
6. Conflict v Compromise - men will argue; women will try to find a middle ground.

                               Six contrasts to show differences between genders.

Dominance Model:

This idea sees women as an oppressed group and interprets differences in women's and men's speech in terms of men's dominance and women's subordination.

Deborah Cameron (1995): Challenges the whole idea that there are two different and contrasting languages for men and women.

Zimmerman and West (1975): This is the theory that in mixed-sex conversations men are more likely to interrupt than women.

Subsequent research shows that men and females don't hold equal positions when it comes to conversations.

1. Most interruptions (96%) made in mixed conversations were made by men. 
2. Men were dominant in conversations and sought to apply their dominance by applying constraints to the conversation.
3. They then believed this reflected the male domination of society.

What langauge barrier?

http://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/oct/01/gender.books

Past Paper 2 Example

Past Paper 2
http://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/english/AQA-77012-SQP.PDF


Examiners expectations of what should be written
http://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/english/AQA-77012-COM.PDF


Example and response
http://filestore.aqa.org.uk/resources/english/AQA-77012-CEX.PDF

Grammar Tutorial

http://www.bristol.ac.uk/arts/exercises/grammar/grammar_tutorial/page_05.htm

10 Reasons Why English IS Weird

English test's main purpose to just grade children?

http://www.theguardian.com/education/2015/nov/03/morgan-grammar-test-right-answer-spag-english-spelling-punctuation-grammar

Are Emoji's the new visual system of communicating?

http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2015/may/27/emoji-language-dragging-us-back-to-the-dark-ages-yellow-smiley-face

Spoken language excercise

Analysis of mini written transcripts specific to certain contexts.

Telephoning to ask for an application form for a job.

Maxim of relevance- communication, doesn’t go off topic

Not as direct,

Positive face, ‘I was just wondering..’ and politeness, ‘please’ ‘thank you’

Non-fluency features- ‘um’ fillers, hesitation, nervous.

Agreement- ‘yeah, sure’

Paralinguistic features- nervous laughter

Adjacency pairs and preferred responses.

Direct address terms by name.

Telephoning a friend to arrange to go out together.

Rising intonation- “hello?”

Informal register

Non-fluency features- pauses, fillers suggests nervous

Voiced pauses

Adjacency pairs

Elision- “wanna”

Maxim of quantity flouted- short utterances, awkward

Phatic talk

Discourse marker

Asking a stranger to give you directions.

Positive face needs-Stranger is being polite

Paralinguistic features

Preferred response-Stranger answers by giving directions

Adjacency pairs

Quality Maxim-Stranger gives true directions

Informal register-“Mate”

Dialect-Bristolian-“Cribbs”

Direct-“Oi mate”

Stranger adapts his language to the drivers language

  Giving directions to someone who does not understand English well.

Maxim of quantity.

Direct- One word utterance.

Deixis- Paralinguistic features.

Rising intonation to signify question

Fillers/pauses-stilted- corrupt Grice’s Maxims.

  Explaining to a police officer why you were doing 45 mph in a 30 mph zone.

Formal register – police officer has authority, influential power

Non-fluency features – hedges and pauses

Implied that the police officer is not charging him

‘So’ is a discourse marker

‘Sir’ appropriate address terms

Avoiding eye contact – paralinguistic features

Telling a parent that you are pregnant (you’re not married or in a stable relationship) or that your girlfriend is pregnant.

Address terms – ‘darling’ to ‘young lady’

Phatic talk – adjacency pairs, preferred response, avoids intended conversation

Non-fluency features – hesitations, fillers, pauses, reluctant to speak

Paralinguistic features – nervous laughter

Interruption – dispreferred response

Grice’s maxim of quantity – parent talks a lot more than the daughter

Grice’s maxim of manner – flouted by mother who asks a series of questions, interrogative syntax

Simon Moore's- The universal teacher

Language and Occupation 

http://www.universalteacher.org.uk/lang/occupation.htm


Occupations develop their own special language features, and use those of the common language in novel or distinctive ways. Occupations are a source of language change, while attitudes to language may in turn be causes of change in the way occupations work (as in moving from hierarchical or pyramid to flat management structures)

In an explicit sense as those kinds of activity that we can name (job interview, team briefing, disciplinary tribunal, conference, marriage ceremony) or

In a looser descriptive sense (discussing a problem, telling a manager about an incident, asking an expert for guidance).

Here are some general functions of language in occupational contexts:

• communicating information
• requesting help
• confirming arrangements
• instructing employees or colleagues to do something
• making things happen or enacting them

Almost every occupation has its own special lexicon:

• forms used only in the occupation, or
• forms in the common lexicon but used with meanings which are special to the occupation: justify means very different things to a printer or typesetter and to a priest.

Example's: A ship's master may refer to kentledge, gunwales and quarterdeck (forms peculiar to naval language) or to the heads, port and roads (forms in the common lexicon, but with different special meanings - on a ship the heads is a name for the toilet).

Register and Lexis:

• professional orchestral music includes a lexicon of Italian loan words (forte, andante, allegro, pizzicato and so on) with cross-cultural meanings;
• soccer players (and managers and commentators) allows use of the perfect tense in a specific way (he's gone past the defender and given me a good pass, and I've knocked it in);
• particle physicists includes a lexicon of old forms with novel meanings that we cannot describe verbally, but can represent only mathematically, like spin, strangeness and charm.

Conversational maxims:

The “success” of a conversation depends upon the various speakers' approach to the interaction. The way in which people try to make conversations work is sometimes called a co-operative principle. We can explain this by four underlying conversational rules or maxims. (They are also named Grice's maxims, after the language philosopher, H.P. Grice.) They are the maxims of quality, quantity, relevance and manner.

• Quality - this means that speakers should tell the truth, not say what they think false, or make statements without evidence.
• Quantity - this means that speakers should be as informative as is required for conversation to proceed; say neither too little, nor too much.
• Relevance - this means that speakers' contributions should relate clearly to the purpose of the exchange.
• Manner - this means that speakers' contributions should be clear, orderly and brief, avoiding obscurity and ambiguity.

Linguists examples of classifying illocutionary acts

• Representatives: here the speaker asserts a proposition to be true, using such verbs as: affirm, believe, conclude, deny, report.
• Directives: here the speaker tries to make the hearer do something, with such words as: ask, beg, challenge, command, dare, invite, insist, request.
• Commissives: here the speaker commits himself (or herself) to a (future) course of action, with verbs such as: guarantee, pledge, promise, swear, vow, undertake, warrant.
• Expressives: the speaker expresses an attitude to or about a state of affairs, using such verbs as: apologize, appreciate, congratulate, deplore, detest, regret, thank, welcome.
• Declarations the speaker alters the external status or condition of an object or situation, solely by making the utterance: I now pronounce you man and wife, I name this ship, I sentence you to be hanged by the neck until you be dead. (In this case, the alteration is not the execution of the sentence - which is in the future - but the convict's passing under sentence and becoming a condemned man or woman.)

AQA - Specimen papers and mark schemes.

http://www.aqa.org.uk/subjects/english/as-and-a-level/english-language-7701-7702

Image of Brown and Levinsons' Theory

Brown and Levinson - Politeness Theory

http://www.sharritt.com/CISTheoryPrimary/politeness.html

AS- Spontaneous Speech Terminology Quiz

1. 'A pattern in which one utterance is followed by an appropriate linked response' - is the definition of the term? Adjacency pairs

2. Explain the term 'side sequencing'? Going off subject and talking about another subject

3. Give an example of a 'tag question'? 'its hot isn't it?'

4. Give three terms that are an example of non-fluency features? 'erm' 'ah' 'like'

5. Explain the term 'phatic language' and give two examples of 'phatic language'? Used as a 'social glue' its used as small talk rather than conveying information. 'hi alright?'

6. Non-verbal aspects of speech or 'paralinguistic features' such as 'fillers' can help reveal a speakers attitudes and feelings. Name two other non-verbal aspects of speech? Prosodic features and eye contact

7. 'elp me orf this 'orse' is an example of phonetic spelling which means the spelling of words to represent how they are pronounced.

8. List Grice's maxims and briefly explain what each one refers to?
Quality- whether or not its true
Quantity- Too much/ too little
Relevance- If its on topic or not
Manner- Clear commincation

9. Grice was interested in suggesting what helps to create fluent conversation.

10. When analysing spontaneous speech we do not refer to 'sentences' but register.

11. Brown and Levinson put forward some theories about politeness. Name four positive politeness strategies we might employ if we want to be liked?
- Paying attention
- Seeking agreement (safe topics)
- Pretend agreement (white lies, hedging)
- Using appropriate address terms

12. In order to analyse a transcript what three things must you establish an awareness from the outset?
- The person the transcipts in
- Discourse markers 
-Graphology

Transcript and analysis

Transcript

A: Ok, so what you studying?

B: Law, psychology and English, how bout you?

A: I’m studying, I was spose to study psychology but I got a D.

B: In what GCSE?

A: Hm, so I got to study Sociology now and I’m doing Health and Social Care, English Language and GCSE Maths, so what you studying?

C: Photography, Media and English Language

A: What do you actually do in Media Studies cause I don’t really understand?

C: Um, like plan out films and make horror trailers and then edit it

B: I done that in year 11

A: No way, so what about you?

D: Travel and Tourism, Economics and English Language

1.     Filled pauses are used in this transcript such as ‘Hm’ and ‘Um’ this is due to hesitation as they were unsure what to say next.

2.     The noun ‘done’ in this transcript is incorrect as it should be ‘did’ but it’s an informal conversation, this is the same for the lexis ‘spose’.

3.     The transcript has adjacency pairs meaning that the conversation follows an expected pattern, with preferred responses.

4.     The lexis ‘cause’ is informal vocabulary as its been shortened from ‘because’ this is because it was spoken language not written.

5.     Fillers are also used ‘Like’.

6.     This conversation shows an example of chaining.

7.     There are a multiple number of interrogatives.

8.     There is clear field specific lexis subject in relation to college subjects.

9.     In the text there is a hypernym of the word ‘study’ and the verb ‘studying’.

10.           The hypernyms which stem off of this are words such as psychology, economics and maths.

Awkward interviews

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Flcozxpfh4g
- Lack of interest in conversation
- No conversational skills
- Distracted by surroundings
- One worded answers
- Lack of eye contact


https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sAhPhQlfRDc
- Host began with getting interviewees name wrong
-Sarcastic comments from interviewee
-Rudeness from hosts 'take a nap'
- Both female characters became bitter against one another
- Obvious disinterest from interviewee

David Crystal- Global English 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WZI1EjxxXKw

Steven Pinker - Language as a window in human nature
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3-son3EJTrU&noredirect=1
Language is a window into social relations.

Indirect speech act:
A case in which we don't blurt out what we mean in so many words.
-Instead we veil our intentions in Innuendos hoping listener will read between lines and to infer the true meaning of speaker.
''We're counting on you to show leadership in our campaign for the future'' - what they mean is to give them money.

Often situations are veiled when both parties despite them both knowing what they mean.

Language has 2 things:
1. Convey some content - bribe, commands and proposition
2. Negotiate a relationship type

Literal form- Signal safest relationship to listener.

1) Dominance- inherited from dominance hierarchy's
2) Communality- Share and share alike - mutuality
3) Reciprocity- You scratch my back Ill scratch yours

What you can get away with in communality relationships you cant get away with in dominance relationships.  

Both communality and reciprocity relationships clash, as communality is appropriate betweens friends, where as reciprocity is appropriate in the context of a restaurant.

Why should an obvious innuendos still feel more comfortable than a direct overture

'That is in some state on the record'

Functional categories

Transactional- Getting something done
Expressive- Giving expressions in feelings
Instructional- Giving information about how to do something
Phatic- Socialising through 'small talk'
Referential- Conveying factual knowledge

Steven Pinker "what our language habits reveal"

https://www.ted.com/talks/steven_pinker_on_language_and_thought

Basic notes:
-Language is a window into human nature.
- Language emerges from human minds interacting with one another.
- Visible in unstoppable change in language:

• Slang
• Jargon
• Historical change in language
• Dialect
• Divergence
• Language format

Constructions are used metaphorically:

- She told a story/told me a story

Use of space as a metaphor:

-The messenger went from Paris to Istanbul (space)

- Biff from went from sick to well

Use of force as a metaphor:

-Rose forced the door open (physical force)

-Rose forced Sadie to go (interpersonal force)

Form, Audience + Purpose

Form, Audience and Purpose

  1. http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/jan/25/secrets-of-the-teenage-brain
Form- Article/ interview
Audience- Adults with children (Parents)
Purpose-Inform and answer commonly asked questions.
Evidence: "Clothes left in the bathroom, losing things, plates festering under the bed… Why doesn’t my teenager care about being tidy?"

2 .http://whatshed.co.uk/how-to-build-a-shed/
Form- Instructions
Audience- Older men (who often do it themselves)
Purpose- Inform.

3 http://www.springfieldspringfield.co.uk/view_episode_scripts.php?tv-show=downton-abbey&episode=s02e05
Form- Script
Audience- Older more mature adults
Purpose- Entertainment

4.http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/alton-towers-crash-victim-shares-6452333
Form- Tabloid newspaper.
Audience- Variety of younger and older individuals
Purpose-Inform (gives update of recent events)

5. http://www.theverge.com/2015/9/10/9298685/the-visit-review-m-night-shyamalan-the-village
Form- Review
Audience- Young adults and teenagers.
Purpose- Gives feedback and informs.

Frameworks

Phonetics, phonology and prosidics  
-How speech sounds and effects are articulated and analysed
 
Examples;
-Onamatepia
-Alliteration

Graphology
-Visual aspects of textual design and apperance (form, auidence and purpose)

Examples;
-font
-punctuation
-Emojiis

Lexis and sematics
- Lexis concerns word choice
-Sematics concerns the meaning of the word

Grammar (including morphology)
- Structural patterns and shapes of English (clauses, phrases and word level)

Pragmatics
- Contextual (meaning) aspects of langauges use.

 

Example:

Speaker: 'Are you putting the kettle on?'

Listener knows the speaker is hinting that they would like a hot drink.

Discourse

-Extended streches of communication occuring in different genres, modes and contexts.

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/6960745/Teenagers-only-use-800-different-words-a-day.html

Summary of both articles

Summary - "All raait! It's a new black-white lingo"

This newspaper article discusses the point that the younger generation have picked up a multi-ethnic dialect, which incorporates language used all around.  However, the older generation seem to think the new multi-ethnic dialect is causing an inconvenience when it comes to teenagers school life, as teachers seem to think their spoken and written language is beginning to converge. Despite this, by dialects coming from a variety of cultural backgrounds it allows individuals who may not speak to one another because of this barrier to become more social as they are able to communicate easier as they can understand one another.

 One of the main contributors to teenagers picking up new dialects so say BBC youth radio stations is down to music, as music in which teenagers listen to involve rappers such as Dizzee Rascal and Lady Sovereign which incorporates slang and other  dialects, which is  then shared nationally meaning teenagers are picking the dialects up as they plug in their earphones. Research shows that a mix of British backgrounds and a mix from immigrant families both use the same dialect, which demonstrates that being around others with different dialects means its more likely for you to pick up on it.  The most multicultural cities are said to be Bristol, Birmingham and Manchester, where its said that the multi-ethnic dialects are going to become more mainstream as teenagers rate it as being fashionable and cool.

Summary- "From the mouth of teens"

In this newspaper article it begins by stating the sort of language teens use in common environments such as being on the bus, where the older generation would over hear conversations between teenagers and wouldn't understand a word. In London where diversity is at its highest, researchers have found out that most teenagers do speak a multi-ethnic dialects, which makes multiculturalism a hot topic for newspaper reporters. When studying a groups of varied teenagers from a wide range of backgrounds it was proven that they all speak with the same dialect, the dialect used by a lot of teenagers originates from Jamaica and Afro-Caribbean where vowels seem to be shortened rather than stretched as Cockney dialect is. As generations have passed teenagers have found a way of communicating with other cultures by incorporating their dialect, however older generations have been critical with this, as teenagers are often stereotyped as being thugs possibly due to the way they speak but Logan Pearsall Smith puts it down to teenagers trying to find themselves.

Adolescence is the time in your life where things such as language are more likely to be absorbed as you want to be identified with a certain group or you feel more comfortable using the same vocabulary as people in your age group. Things such as fashion and music get bought into the equation as these things can often be translated into a form of language, in which the older generation would struggle to understand. Its also important that teenagers are aware that using standard English is important and should be used when appropriate otherwise it could become the standard of English if it continues throughout generations. One spokesperson debates on whether or not this dialect will continue, he mentions that it all depends on the type of person as if you're ambitious then you will change your speech in order to reach those aspirations whereas if not you will most likely retain all new dialect.

In comparison with both of these texts the first article gives a brief outline on the multi-ethic dialect, however compared to the second article it is much more vague about whether they are concerned as they do mention that its making teenagers more culturally aware. Where as in the second article they are more concerned on the affect it could possibly have on teenagers futures, they also go into a lot more detail of where the dialect originated from and give an insight into how teenagers are seen by society.

Article on teens spoken language

http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/from-the-mouths-of-teens-422688.html

Specification

http://www.aqa.org.uk/subjects/english/as-and-a-level/english-language-7701-7702/subject-content-as/language-and-the-individual